Journal Description
Brain Sciences
Brain Sciences
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on neuroscience published monthly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, Embase, PSYNDEX, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 15.6 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
3.3 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.4 (2022)
Latest Articles
DysDiTect: Dyslexia Identification Using CNN-Positional-LSTM-Attention Modeling with Chinese Dictation Task
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 444; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050444 (registering DOI) - 29 Apr 2024
Abstract
Handwriting difficulty is a defining feature of Chinese developmental dyslexia (DD) due to the complex structure and dense information contained within compound characters. Despite previous attempts to use deep neural network models to extract handwriting features, the temporal property of writing characters in
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Handwriting difficulty is a defining feature of Chinese developmental dyslexia (DD) due to the complex structure and dense information contained within compound characters. Despite previous attempts to use deep neural network models to extract handwriting features, the temporal property of writing characters in sequential order during dictation tasks has been neglected. By combining transfer learning of convolutional neural network (CNN) and positional encoding with the temporal-sequential encoding of long short-term memory (LSTM) and attention mechanism, we trained and tested the model with handwriting images of 100,000 Chinese characters from 1064 children in Grades 2–6 (DD = 483; Typically Developing [TD] = 581). Using handwriting features only, the best model reached 83.2% accuracy, 79.2% sensitivity, 86.4% specificity, and 91.2% AUC. With grade information, the best model achieved 85.0% classification accuracy, 83.3% sensitivity, 86.4% specificity, and 89.7% AUC. These findings suggest the potential of utilizing machine learning technology to identify children at risk for dyslexia at an early age.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Statistical Learning and Machine Learning: Advances in Neurobiological and Computational Approaches)
Open AccessArticle
Enhanced Cognitive Inhibition in Table Tennis Athletes: Insights from Color-Word and Spatial Stroop Tasks
by
Qin Huang, Xuechen Mao, Jilong Shi, Jun Pan and Anmin Li
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 443; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050443 (registering DOI) - 29 Apr 2024
Abstract
The ability to inhibit conflicting information is pivotal in the dynamic and high-speed context of fast-ball sports. However, the behavioral and electrophysiological characteristics underlying the cognitive inhibition processes associated with table tennis expertise remain unexplored. This study aims to bridge these research gaps
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The ability to inhibit conflicting information is pivotal in the dynamic and high-speed context of fast-ball sports. However, the behavioral and electrophysiological characteristics underlying the cognitive inhibition processes associated with table tennis expertise remain unexplored. This study aims to bridge these research gaps by utilizing the color-word Stroop task and the spatial Stroop task alongside event-related potential (ERP) measurements to investigate domain-general and domain-specific cognitive inhibition among table tennis athletes. The study involved a total of 40 participants, including 20 table tennis athletes (11 males and 9 females; mean age 20.75 years) and 20 nonathletes (9 males and 11 females; mean age 19.80 years). The group differences in the Stroop effect on behavioral outcomes and ERP amplitudes were compared within each task, respectively. In the color-word Stroop tasks, athletes exhibited smaller incongruent-related negative potential amplitudes (Ninc; 300–400 ms; p = 0.036) and a diminished Stroop effect on late sustained potential amplitudes (LSP; 500–650 ms; p = 0.028) than nonathletes, although no significant differences were observed in behavioral outcomes (p > 0.05). Conversely, in the spatial Stroop tasks, athletes not only responded more swiftly but also exhibited reduced Stroop effects on both LSP amplitudes (350–500 ms; p = 0.004) and reaction times (p = 0.002) relative to nonathletes. These findings suggest that table tennis athletes excel in cognitive inhibition in the context of both domain-general and domain-specific tasks, particularly exhibiting enhanced performance in tasks that are closely aligned with the demands of their sport. Our results support the neural efficiency hypothesis and improve our understanding of the interactions between cognitive functions and table tennis expertise.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Executive Functions by EEG and fMRI)
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Open AccessArticle
Identifying Effective Connectivity between Stochastic Neurons with Variable-Length Memory Using a Transfer Entropy Rate Estimator
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João V. R. Izzi, Ricardo F. Ferreira, Victor A. Girardi and Rodrigo F. O. Pena
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050442 (registering DOI) - 29 Apr 2024
Abstract
Information theory explains how systems encode and transmit information. This article examines the neuronal system, which processes information via neurons that react to stimuli and transmit electrical signals. Specifically, we focus on transfer entropy to measure the flow of information between sequences and
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Information theory explains how systems encode and transmit information. This article examines the neuronal system, which processes information via neurons that react to stimuli and transmit electrical signals. Specifically, we focus on transfer entropy to measure the flow of information between sequences and explore its use in determining effective neuronal connectivity. We analyze the causal relationships between two discrete time series, and , which take values in binary alphabets. When the bivariate process is a jointly stationary ergodic variable-length Markov chain with memory no larger than k, we demonstrate that the null hypothesis of the test—no causal influence—requires a zero transfer entropy rate. The plug-in estimator for this function is identified with the test statistic of the log-likelihood ratios. Since under the null hypothesis, this estimator follows an asymptotic chi-squared distribution, it facilitates the calculation of p-values when applied to empirical data. The efficacy of the hypothesis test is illustrated with data simulated from a neuronal network model, characterized by stochastic neurons with variable-length memory. The test results identify biologically relevant information, validating the underlying theory and highlighting the applicability of the method in understanding effective connectivity between neurons.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Computational Neuroscience and Neuroinformatics)
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Open AccessArticle
Mechanism of Microwave Radiation-Induced Learning and Memory Impairment Based on Hippocampal Metabolomics
by
Shuting Guan, Yu Xin, Ke Ren, Hui Wang, Ji Dong, Haoyu Wang, Jing Zhang, Xinping Xu, Binwei Yao, Li Zhao and Ruiyun Peng
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050441 (registering DOI) - 29 Apr 2024
Abstract
The brain is complex and metabolically active, and the detection of metabolites plays an important role in brain development and diseases. Currently, there is a lack of research on the metabolic spectrum changes in learning and memory impairment, and hippocampal damage induced by
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The brain is complex and metabolically active, and the detection of metabolites plays an important role in brain development and diseases. Currently, there is a lack of research on the metabolic spectrum changes in learning and memory impairment, and hippocampal damage induced by microwave radiation from the metabolic perspective. Aiming to provide sensitive indicators for microwave radiation-induced brain damage and establish a foundation for understanding its injury mechanisms, this study employed non-targeted metabolomics to investigate metabolic fluctuations and key metabolic pathway alterations in rats’ hippocampal tissue after microwave radiation. The memory and spatial exploration abilities of rats decreased after radiation. The postsynaptic densities were thickened in the MW group. The cholesterol sulfate, SM(d16:1/24:1(15Z)), and linoelaidylcarnitine were significantly increased after radiation, whereas etrahydrocorticosterone, L-phenylalanine, and histamine were significantly decreased after radiation. These metabolites were enriched in signaling pathways related to the inflammatory mediator regulation of transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, neuroactive ligand–receptor interaction, steroid hormone biosynthesis, and phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis. These findings indicate that microwave radiation causes spatial learning and memory dysfunction in rats and structural damage to hippocampal tissue.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience)
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Open AccessArticle
Annexin 1 Reduces Dermatitis-Induced Itch and Cholestatic Itch through Inhibiting Neuroinflammation and Iron Overload in the Spinal Dorsal Horn of Mice
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Tang Li, Lingyue Hu, Chao Qin, Yuanjie Li, Zhenhua Song, Yang Jiao, Chunyan Wang, Wei Cui and Linlin Zhang
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050440 (registering DOI) - 28 Apr 2024
Abstract
The unclear pathogenesis of chronic itch originating from several systemic disorders poses challenges to clinical intervention. Recent studies recapitulate the spinal neurocircuits associated with neuroinflammation and synaptic plasticity responsible for pruriceptive sensations. The resolution of nociception and inflammation by Annexin 1 (ANXA1) has
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The unclear pathogenesis of chronic itch originating from several systemic disorders poses challenges to clinical intervention. Recent studies recapitulate the spinal neurocircuits associated with neuroinflammation and synaptic plasticity responsible for pruriceptive sensations. The resolution of nociception and inflammation by Annexin 1 (ANXA1) has been identified. Given that pain and itch share many neural mechanisms, we employed two mice models of chronic itch to study the underlying targets and therapeutic potential of ANXA1, comprising allergic contact dermatitis-induced itch and cholestatic itch. Herein, we report that spinal expression of ANXA1 is down-regulated in mice with dermatitis-induced itch and cholestatic itch. Repetitive injections of ANXA1-derived peptide Ac2-26 (intrathecal, 10 μg) reduce itch-like scratching behaviors following dermatitis and cholestasis. Single exposure to Ac2-26 (intrathecal, 10 μg) alleviates the established itch phenotypes. Moreover, systemic delivery of Ac2-26 (intravenous, 100 μg) is effective against chronic dermatitis-induced itch and cholestatic itch. Strikingly, Ac2-26 therapy inhibits transferrin receptor 1 over-expression, iron accumulation, cytokine IL-17 release and the production of its receptor IL-17R, as well as astrocyte activation in the dorsal horn of spinal cord in mouse with dermatitis and cholestasis. Pharmacological intervention with iron chelator deferoxamine impairs chronic itch behaviors and spinal iron accumulation after dermatitis and cholestasis. Also, spinal IL-17/IL-17R neutralization attenuates chronic itch. Taken together, this current research indicates that ANXA1 protects against the beginning and maintenance of long-term dermatitis-induced itch and cholestatic itch, which may occur via the spinal suppression of IL-17-mediated neuroinflammation, astrocyte activation and iron overload.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Neural Control of Peripheral Function)
Open AccessArticle
Hematocrit Predicts Poor Prognosis in Patients with Acute Ischemic Stroke or Transient Ischemic Attack
by
Lingyun Cui, Yefang Feng, Ping Lu, Anxin Wang, Zixiao Li and Yongjun Wang
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050439 (registering DOI) - 28 Apr 2024
Abstract
This study aims to investigate the association between HCT (Hematocrit) levels and adverse outcomes in patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS) or transient ischemic attack (TIA); 14,832 participants from the China National Stroke Registry-III with AIS or TIA were analyzed. Participants were categorized
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This study aims to investigate the association between HCT (Hematocrit) levels and adverse outcomes in patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS) or transient ischemic attack (TIA); 14,832 participants from the China National Stroke Registry-III with AIS or TIA were analyzed. Participants were categorized into quartiles based on baseline HCT levels. The primary outcome was poor functional outcomes (modified Rankin Scale ≥ 3) during three months, with secondary outcomes including all-cause death, stroke recurrence, and combined vascular events. Logistic regression or Cox regression models were used to assess the relationship between HCT and clinical outcomes. Compared to the third quartile, patients in the lowest quartile group showed increased risk of poor functional outcome (adjusted OR: 1.35, 95% CI: 1.15–1.58, p < 0.001), patients in the lowest quartile had a higher risk of all-cause death (adjusted HR: 1.68, 95% CI: 1.06–2.68, p = 0.028), as did those in the highest quartile (adjusted HR: 2.02, 95% CI: 1.26–3.25, p = 0.004). Sensitivity analysis shows that the association of HCT with all-cause death weakened, while the association with poor functional outcome was strengthened after excluding patients with recurrent stroke. Our results indicated that HCT level could be used as a short-term predictor for poor functional outcomes and all-cause death in patients with AIS or TIA.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Neurorehabilitation)
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Open AccessArticle
Exploring the Association between Elevated Anxiety Symptoms and Low Skeletal Muscle Mass among Asymptomatic Adults: A Population-Based Study in Republic of Korea
by
Eunsoo Kim, Sra Jung, Mi Yeon Lee, Chul-Hyun Park and Sung Joon Cho
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 438; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050438 (registering DOI) - 28 Apr 2024
Abstract
Individuals with mental health problems are at higher risk of musculoskeletal diseases. However, the association between low muscle mass (LMM) and anxiety symptoms remains uninvestigated. This cross-sectional study enrolled 174,262 adults (73,833 women, 100,429 men), aged 18 to 89, who completed the anxiety
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Individuals with mental health problems are at higher risk of musculoskeletal diseases. However, the association between low muscle mass (LMM) and anxiety symptoms remains uninvestigated. This cross-sectional study enrolled 174,262 adults (73,833 women, 100,429 men), aged 18 to 89, who completed the anxiety scale and body composition analyses. Using bio-electrical impedance analysis, skeletal muscle mass index (SMI) was calculated based on appendicular skeletal muscle mass (ASM) (kg)/height (m2). LMM was defined as SMI < 7.0 kg/m2 in men and <5.4 kg/m2 in women. Anxiety symptoms were screened using the Clinical Useful Anxiety Outcome Scale (CUXOS) with cut-off scores of 20, 30, and 40. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed. LMM prevalence was 20.17% in women, 3.86% in men (p < 0.001). The prevalence of anxiety symptoms in LMM group decreased from mild (CUXOS > 20: women, 32.74%, men, 21.17%) to moderate (CUXOS > 30: 13.34%, 7.32%), to severe anxiety symptoms (CUXOS > 40: 4.00%, 1.73%). In multivariable-adjusted models, LMM was associated with mild (aOR (95% confidence interval)), women, 1.13 (1.08–1.17); men, 1.17 (1.08–1.27)), moderate (1.17 (1.11–1.24); 1.35 (1.19–1.53) and severe anxiety symptoms (1.18 (1.07–1.3), 1.36 (1.06–1.74)), demonstrating an increased risk of ORs with escalating anxiety severity. LMM was independently associated with a higher prevalence of anxiety symptoms.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Research on Mood Disorders: Opportunities and Challenges)
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Open AccessArticle
ADHD Patients with Suicidal Behaviour: Risk Factors, Comorbidities, and Clinical Profile: A Naturalistic Exploratory Study
by
Bryan Diaz-Piedra and Joseph Sadek
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 437; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050437 (registering DOI) - 27 Apr 2024
Abstract
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder that disrupts brain functioning and is characterized by hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention. With varying presentations and complex etiological factors contributing to the development of ADHD, along with its persistence into adulthood, ADHD must
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Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder that disrupts brain functioning and is characterized by hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention. With varying presentations and complex etiological factors contributing to the development of ADHD, along with its persistence into adulthood, ADHD must be studied. Researchers have taken an interest in the relationship between ADHD and suicide, which is a serious public health concern with increasing prevalence rates in the Americas. The current literature reveals conflicting views on the importance of psychiatric comorbidities in the development of suicidal behaviours in ADHD patients. Therefore, this study aimed to determine whether there were significant differences between adult ADHD patients with suicide risk and adult ADHD patients without suicide risk. This study was a naturalistic retrospective chart review pilot study that used a sample of adults with a confirmed diagnosis of ADHD from January 2023 to August 2023. Using convenience sampling and sets of inclusion and exclusion criteria, patient data were sequentially collected from Med Access electronic medical records. The control and experimental groups each consisted of 50 patients ( 100) ranging from 19 to 58 years old. Our quantitative data were analyzed using non-parametric statistical tests, including the Chi-Square test and the Mann–Whitney U test. The results showed significant associations between ADHD patients with suicide risk and (1) borderline personality disorder; (2) binge eating disorder; (3) seven specific psychosocial risk factors; and (4) a higher number of antidepressant medication trials. No significant associations were found with other psychiatric disorders; however, there are important sex differences in terms of the risk factors. Our pilot study reveals several significant differences between adult ADHD patients with suicide risk and those without suicide risk. However, given our limited sample size and limitations, we hope our study encourages larger-scale studies to further investigate this relationship to improve its generalizability.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Developmental Neuroscience)
Open AccessArticle
Research on Fatigue Driving Detection Technology Based on CA-ACGAN
by
Han Ye, Ming Chen and Guofu Feng
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050436 (registering DOI) - 27 Apr 2024
Abstract
Driver fatigue represents a significant peril to global traffic safety, necessitating the advancement of potent fatigue monitoring methodologies to bolster road safety. This research introduces a conditional generative adversarial network with a classification head that integrates convolutional and attention mechanisms (CA-ACGAN) designed for
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Driver fatigue represents a significant peril to global traffic safety, necessitating the advancement of potent fatigue monitoring methodologies to bolster road safety. This research introduces a conditional generative adversarial network with a classification head that integrates convolutional and attention mechanisms (CA-ACGAN) designed for the precise identification of fatigue driving states through the analysis of electroencephalography (EEG) signals. First, this study constructed a 4D feature data model capable of mirroring drivers’ fatigue state, meticulously analyzing the EEG signals’ frequency, spatial, and temporal dimensions. Following this, we present the CA-ACGAN framework, a novel integration of attention schemes, the bottleneck residual block, and the Transformer element. This integration was designed to refine the processing of EEG signals significantly. In utilizing a conditional generative adversarial network equipped with a classification header, the framework aims to distinguish fatigue states effectively. Moreover, it addresses the scarcity of authentic data through the generation of superior-quality synthetic data. Empirical outcomes illustrate that the CA-ACGAN model surpasses various extant methods in the fatigue detection endeavor on the SEED-VIG public dataset. Moreover, juxtaposed with leading-edge GAN models, our model exhibits an efficacy in in producing high-quality data that is clearly superior. This investigation confirms the CA-ACGAN model’s utility in fatigue driving identification and suggests fresh perspectives for deep learning applications in time series data generation and processing.
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(This article belongs to the Section Computational Neuroscience and Neuroinformatics)
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Open AccessArticle
Methamphetamine and the Synthetic Cathinone 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) Produce Persistent Effects on Prefrontal and Striatal Microglial Morphology and Neuroimmune Signaling following Repeated Binge-like Intake in Male and Female Rats
by
Erin K. Nagy, Paula F. Overby, Jonna M. Leyrer-Jackson, Vincent F. Carfagno, Amanda M. Acuña and M. Foster Olive
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050435 (registering DOI) - 27 Apr 2024
Abstract
Psychostimulants alter cellular morphology and activate neuroimmune signaling in a number of brain regions, yet few prior studies have investigated their persistence beyond acute abstinence or following high levels of voluntary drug intake. In this study, we examined the effects of the repeated
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Psychostimulants alter cellular morphology and activate neuroimmune signaling in a number of brain regions, yet few prior studies have investigated their persistence beyond acute abstinence or following high levels of voluntary drug intake. In this study, we examined the effects of the repeated binge-like self-administration (96 h/week for 3 weeks) of methamphetamine (METH) and 21 days of abstinence in female and male rats on changes in cell density, morphology, and cytokine levels in two addiction-related brain regions—the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and dorsal striatum (DStr). We also examined the effects of similar patterns of intake of the cocaine-like synthetic cathinone derivative 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) or saline as a control. Robust levels of METH and MDPV intake (~500–1000 infusions per 96 h period) were observed in both sexes. We observed no changes in astrocyte or neuron density in either region, but decreases in dendritic spine densities were observed in PFC pyramidal and DStr medium spiny neurons. The microglial cell density was decreased in the PFC of METH self-administering animals, accompanied by evidence of microglial apoptosis. Changes in microglial morphology (e.g., decreased territorial volume and ramification and increased cell soma volume) were also observed, indicative of an inflammatory-like state. Multiplex analyses of PFC and DStr cytokine content revealed elevated levels of various interleukins and chemokines only in METH self-administering animals, with region- and sex-dependent effects. Our findings suggest that voluntary binge-like METH or MDPV intake induces similar cellular perturbations in the brain, but they are divergent neuroimmune responses that persist beyond the initial abstinence phase.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Abuse Liability and Toxic Potential of Synthetic Psychoactive Cathinones)
Open AccessReview
Beneficial versus Detrimental Effects of Complement–Microglial Interactions in Alzheimer’s Disease
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Gunel Ayyubova and Nadeem Fazal
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050434 (registering DOI) - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
Research indicates that brain-region-specific synapse loss and dysfunction are early hallmarks and stronger neurobiological correlates of cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) than amyloid plaque and neurofibrillary tangle counts or neuronal loss. Even though the precise mechanisms underlying increased synaptic pruning in AD
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Research indicates that brain-region-specific synapse loss and dysfunction are early hallmarks and stronger neurobiological correlates of cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) than amyloid plaque and neurofibrillary tangle counts or neuronal loss. Even though the precise mechanisms underlying increased synaptic pruning in AD are still unknown, it has been confirmed that dysregulation of the balance between complement activation and inhibition is a crucial driver of its pathology. The complement includes three distinct activation mechanisms, with the activation products C3a and C5a, potent inflammatory effectors, and a membrane attack complex (MAC) leading to cell lysis. Besides pro-inflammatory cytokines, the dysregulated complement proteins released by activated microglia bind to amyloid β at the synaptic regions and cause the microglia to engulf the synapses. Additionally, research indicating that microglia-removed synapses are not always degenerating and that suppression of synaptic engulfment can repair cognitive deficits points to an essential opportunity for intervention that can prevent the loss of intact synapses. In this study, we focus on the latest research on the role and mechanisms of complement-mediated microglial synaptic pruning at different stages of AD to find the right targets that could interfere with complement dysregulation and be relevant for therapeutic intervention at the early stages of the disease.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Neurodegenerative Diseases)
Open AccessSystematic Review
Combination of Two Long-Acting Antipsychotics in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review
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Salvatore Cipolla, Pierluigi Catapano, Daniela D’Amico, Rocchina Monda, Nunzia Paola Sallusto, Francesco Perris, Valeria De Santis, Francesco Catapano, Mario Luciano and Andrea Fiorillo
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050433 - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
Background: Up to 34% of patients with schizophrenia are resistant to several treatment trials. Lack of continuous and adequate treatment is associated with relapse, rehospitalization, a lower effect of antipsychotic therapy, and higher risk of side effects. Long-acting injectables antipsychotics (LAI APs) enhance
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Background: Up to 34% of patients with schizophrenia are resistant to several treatment trials. Lack of continuous and adequate treatment is associated with relapse, rehospitalization, a lower effect of antipsychotic therapy, and higher risk of side effects. Long-acting injectables antipsychotics (LAI APs) enhance compliance and improve clinical outcomes and quality of life in patients with schizophrenia, and thus it may be advisable to administer two LAI APs at the same time in cases of treatment-resistant schizophrenia. The purpose of this review is to summarize the available literature regarding the combined use of two LAI APs in patients with schizophrenia or other psychotic spectrum disorders. Methods: An extensive literature search for relevant articles regarding any combination of two long-acting injectable antipsychotics has been performed from inception up to 9 February 2024, on PubMed, Scopus and APA PsycInfo, according to the PRISMA statement. Only studies reporting combination of two LAI APs and its clinical outcome in patients with schizophrenia and related disorders were selected. Results: After the selection process, nine case reports, four case series and two observational retrospective studies were included in the final analysis. All patients treated with dual LAI APs reported a good response, and no new or unexpected adverse effects due to the combination of two LAIs were reported. Different drug combinations were used, and the most frequent association resulted in aripiprazole monohydrate + paliperidone palmitate once monthly (32 times). Conclusions: Our review highlights that the treatment regimen with two concurrent LAI APs is already widely used in clinical practice and is recognized as providing a promising, effective, and relatively safe therapeutic strategy for treating the schizophrenia spectrum disorders.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Advantages of Combining Therapies in Treating Psychiatric Patients)
Open AccessReview
The Past, Current and Future Research in Cerebellar TMS Evoked Responses—A Narrative Review
by
Po-Yu Fong, John C. Rothwell and Lorenzo Rocchi
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050432 - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation coupled with electroencephalography (TMS-EEG) is a novel technique to investigate cortical physiology in health and disease. The cerebellum has recently gained attention as a possible new hotspot in the field of TMS-EEG, with several reports published recently. However, EEG responses
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Transcranial magnetic stimulation coupled with electroencephalography (TMS-EEG) is a novel technique to investigate cortical physiology in health and disease. The cerebellum has recently gained attention as a possible new hotspot in the field of TMS-EEG, with several reports published recently. However, EEG responses obtained by cerebellar stimulation vary considerably across the literature, possibly due to different experimental methods. Compared to conventional TMS-EEG, which involves stimulation of the cortex, cerebellar TMS-EEG presents some technical difficulties, including strong muscle twitches in the neck area and a loud TMS click when double-cone coils are used, resulting in contamination of responses by electromyographic activity and sensory potentials. Understanding technical difficulties and limitations is essential for the development of cerebellar TMS-EEG research. In this review, we summarize findings of cerebellar TMS-EEG studies, highlighting limitations in experimental design and potential issues that can result in discrepancies between experimental outcomes. Lastly, we propose a possible direction for academic and clinical research with cerebellar TMS-EEG.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Application of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in Neuroscience)
Open AccessArticle
Abstinence and Fear Experienced during This Period Produce Distinct Cortical and Hippocampal Adaptations in Alcohol-Dependent Rats
by
Noah L. Steiner, Dvijen C. Purohit, Casey M. Tiefenthaler and Chitra D. Mandyam
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050431 (registering DOI) - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
Previous studies demonstrate that ethanol dependence induced by repeating cycles of chronic intermittent ethanol vapor exposure (CIE) followed by protracted abstinence produces significant gray matter damage via myelin dysfunction in the rodent medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and alterations in neuronal excitability in the
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Previous studies demonstrate that ethanol dependence induced by repeating cycles of chronic intermittent ethanol vapor exposure (CIE) followed by protracted abstinence produces significant gray matter damage via myelin dysfunction in the rodent medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and alterations in neuronal excitability in the mPFC and the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus. Specifically, abstinence-induced neuroadaptations have been associated with persistent elevated relapse to drinking. The current study evaluated the effects of forced abstinence for 1 day (d), 7 d, 21 d, and 42 d following seven weeks of CIE on synaptic plasticity proteins in the mPFC and DG. Immunoblotting revealed reduced expression of CaMKII in the mPFC and enhanced expression of GABAA and CaMKII in the DG at the 21 d time point, and the expression of the ratio of GluN2A/2B subunits did not change at any of the time points studied. Furthermore, cognitive performance via Pavlovian trace fear conditioning (TFC) was evaluated in 3 d abstinent rats, as this time point is associated with negative affect. In addition, the expression of the ratio of GluN2A/2B subunits and a 3D structural analysis of neurons in the mPFC and DG were evaluated in 3 d abstinent rats. Behavioral analysis revealed faster acquisition of fear responses and reduced retrieval of fear memories in CIE rats compared to controls. TFC produced hyperplasticity of pyramidal neurons in the mPFC under control conditions and this effect was not evident or blunted in abstinent rats. Neurons in the DG were unaltered. TFC enhanced the GluN2A/2B ratio in the mPFC and reduced the ratio in the DG and was not altered by abstinence. These findings indicate that forced abstinence from CIE produces distinct and divergent alterations in plasticity proteins in the mPFC and DG. Fear learning-induced changes in structural plasticity and proteins contributing to it were more profound in the mPFC during forced abstinence.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Brain Structural and Functional Correlates of Addiction)
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Open AccessSystematic Review
The Effect of Extremely Low-Frequency Magnetic Field on Stroke Patients: A Systematic Review
by
Renata Marchewka, Tomasz Trzmiel and Katarzyna Hojan
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050430 - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
Background: The aim of this study was to review the current state of scientific evidence on the effect of extremely low-frequency magnetic fields stimulation (ELF-MFs) on stroke patients. Methods: A systematic review of PubMed, ScienceDirect, PeDro and Embase databases was conducted. Only articles
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Background: The aim of this study was to review the current state of scientific evidence on the effect of extremely low-frequency magnetic fields stimulation (ELF-MFs) on stroke patients. Methods: A systematic review of PubMed, ScienceDirect, PeDro and Embase databases was conducted. Only articles published in English, involving adult participants and focusing on individuals who had experienced a stroke, specifically examining the impact of ELF-MFs on post-stroke patients and had well-defined criteria for inclusion and exclusion of participants, were included. The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed using the Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies (QATQS). Results: A total of 71 studies were identified through database and reference lists’ search, from which 9 were included in the final synthesis. All included studies showed a beneficial effect of ELF-MFs on stroke patients, however seven of the included studies were carried by the same research group. Improvements were observed in domains such as oxidative stress, inflammation, ischemic lesion size, functional status, depressive symptoms and cognitive abilities. Conclusions: The available literature suggests a beneficial effect of ELF-MFs on post-stroke patients; however, the current data are too limited to broadly recommend the use of this method. Further research with improved methodological quality is necessary.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stroke and Acute Stroke Care: Looking Ahead)
Open AccessReview
Virtual Reality-Based Interventions to Improve Balance in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury: A Scoping Review
by
Gabriel Hernan, Neha Ingale, Sujith Somayaji and Akhila Veerubhotla
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050429 - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
Introduction: Virtual reality (VR)-based interventions to improve balance and mobility are gaining increasing traction across patient populations. VR-based interventions are believed to be more enjoyable and engaging for patients with traumatic brain injury. This scoping review aims to summarize existing studies from the
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Introduction: Virtual reality (VR)-based interventions to improve balance and mobility are gaining increasing traction across patient populations. VR-based interventions are believed to be more enjoyable and engaging for patients with traumatic brain injury. This scoping review aims to summarize existing studies from the literature that used VR to improve balance and mobility and determine the gap in VR-based balance literature specific to individuals with traumatic brain injury. Methods: Two authors independently searched the literature using the search terms “Virtual Reality Traumatic Brain Injury Lower Limb”, “Virtual Reality Traumatic Brain Injury Balance”, and “Virtual Reality Traumatic Brain Injury Gait”. Results: A total of seventeen studies, specifically, three randomized controlled trials, one one-arm experimental study, two retrospective studies, two case studies, one feasibility/usability study, one cohort study, and seven diagnostic (validation) studies, met the inclusion criteria for this review. The methodological quality of the studies evaluated using the PEDro scale was fair. Discussion: Future studies should focus on large-scale clinical trials using validated technology to determine its effectiveness and dose–response characteristics. Additionally, standard assessment tools need to be selected and utilized across interventional studies aimed at improving balance and mobility to help compare results between studies.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuropsychological Evaluation and Rehabilitation of Traumatic Brain Injury)
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Open AccessBrief Report
On the Dynamics of Inferential Behavior while Reading Expository and Narrative Texts
by
Yongseok Yoo
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 428; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050428 - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
Inference plays a key role in reading comprehension. This study examines changes in inferential behavior while reading different genres. The inferential behavior of 28 students with reading disabilities (RDs) and 44 students without RDs was quantified while they read expository and narrative texts.
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Inference plays a key role in reading comprehension. This study examines changes in inferential behavior while reading different genres. The inferential behavior of 28 students with reading disabilities (RDs) and 44 students without RDs was quantified while they read expository and narrative texts. First, the average rates of inference attempts and correct inferences were measured during reading. Then, the same rates were measured separately during early and late reading to see if there was a change in inferential behavior. The results show that the change in inferential behavior depends on the genre. While reading the expository text, both groups showed no significant change in their inference making. In contrast, while reading the narrative text, both groups showed higher rates of inference attempts, and only the students without RD showed a significant increase in correct inferences. The implications of these findings for the design of more engaging and effective reading programs are discussed.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Assessment and Rehabilitation of Individuals with Communication and Language Disorders)
Open AccessArticle
Enhanced Novel Object Recognition and Spatial Memory in Rats Selectively Bred for High Nicotine Preference
by
Eren Bekci, Ramazan Can Gokmen, Lutfiye Kanit, Oguz Gozen, Burcu Balkan, Ersin O. Koylu and Aysegul Keser
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 427; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050427 (registering DOI) - 25 Apr 2024
Abstract
This study examined the influence of genetic background on cognitive performance in a selectively bred high nicotine-preferring (NP) rat line. Using the novel object recognition (NOR), novel location recognition (NLR), and Morris water maze (MWM) tests, we evaluated object memory, spatial memory, and
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This study examined the influence of genetic background on cognitive performance in a selectively bred high nicotine-preferring (NP) rat line. Using the novel object recognition (NOR), novel location recognition (NLR), and Morris water maze (MWM) tests, we evaluated object memory, spatial memory, and spatial navigation in nicotine-naive NP rats compared to controls. Our results demonstrate that in the NOR test, both male and female NP rats spent more time exploring the novel object (higher discrimination index) compared to sex-matched controls. In the NLR, the discrimination index differed significantly from zero chance (no preference) in both NP males and females but not in controls, indicating enhanced spatial memory in the NP line. During MWM acquisition, the NP groups and control males took a shorter path to reach the platform compared to control females. On the probe trial, the distance traveled in the target quadrant was longer for NP males and females compared to their respective controls, suggesting enhanced spatial navigation and learning in the NP rats. The interesting preference for novel objects and locations displayed by NP rats may indicate a potential novelty-seeking phenotype in this line. These results highlight the complex interplay between genetic factors, cognitive function, and nicotine preference.
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(This article belongs to the Section Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience)
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Open AccessReview
Neuropsychopharmacological Induction of (Lucid) Dreams: A Narrative Review
by
Abel A. Oldoni, André D. Bacchi, Fúlvio R. Mendes, Paula A. Tiba and Sérgio Mota-Rolim
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050426 - 25 Apr 2024
Abstract
Lucid dreaming (LD) is a physiological state of consciousness that occurs when dreamers become aware that they are dreaming, and may also control the oneiric content. In the general population, LD is spontaneously rare; thus, there is great interest in its induction. Here,
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Lucid dreaming (LD) is a physiological state of consciousness that occurs when dreamers become aware that they are dreaming, and may also control the oneiric content. In the general population, LD is spontaneously rare; thus, there is great interest in its induction. Here, we aim to review the literature on neuropsychopharmacological induction of LD. First, we describe the circadian and homeostatic processes of sleep regulation and the mechanisms that control REM sleep with a focus on neurotransmission systems. We then discuss the neurophysiology and phenomenology of LD to understand the main cortical oscillations and brain areas involved in the emergence of lucidity during REM sleep. Finally, we review possible exogenous substances—including natural plants and artificial drugs—that increase metacognition, REM sleep, and/or dream recall, thus with the potential to induce LD. We found that the main candidates are substances that increase cholinergic and/or dopaminergic transmission, such as galantamine. However, the main limitation of this technique is the complexity of these neurotransmitter systems, which challenges interpreting results in a simple way. We conclude that, despite these promising substances, more research is necessary to find a reliable way to pharmacologically induce LD.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Dreaming and Sleep-Related Metacognitions)
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Open AccessArticle
Efficacy of a Soft Robotic Exoskeleton to Improve Lower Limb Motor Function in Children with Spastic Cerebral Palsy: A Single-Blinded Randomized Controlled Trial
by
Zhichong Hui, Weihang Qi, Yi Zhang, Mingmei Wang, Jiamei Zhang, Dong Li and Dengna Zhu
Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050425 - 25 Apr 2024
Abstract
Purpose: Soft robotic exoskeletons (SREs) are portable, lightweight assistive technology with therapeutic potential for improving lower limb motor function in children with cerebral palsy. To understand the effects of long-term SRE-assisted walking training on children with spastic cerebral palsy (SCP), we designed a
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Purpose: Soft robotic exoskeletons (SREs) are portable, lightweight assistive technology with therapeutic potential for improving lower limb motor function in children with cerebral palsy. To understand the effects of long-term SRE-assisted walking training on children with spastic cerebral palsy (SCP), we designed a study aiming to elucidate the effects of SRE-assisted walking training on lower limb motor function in this population. Methods: In this randomized, single-blinded (outcome assessor) controlled trial, forty children diagnosed with SCP were randomized into the routine rehabilitation (RR) group (N = 20) and the SRE group (N = 20) for comparison. The RR group received routine rehabilitation training, and the SRE group received routine rehabilitation training combined with SRE-assisted overground walking training. Assessments (without SRE) were conducted pre- and post-intervention (8 weeks after the intervention). The primary outcome measures included the 10 m walk test (10MWT) and the 6 min walk test (6MWT). Secondary outcome measures comprised the gross motor function measure-88, pediatric balance scale modified Ashworth scale, and physiological cost index. Results: Both groups showed significant improvements (p < 0.01) across all outcome measures after the 8-week intervention. Between-group comparisons using ANCOVA revealed that the SRE group demonstrated greater improvement in walking speed from the 10MWT (+6.78 m/min, 95% CI [5.74–7.83]; p < 0.001) and walking distance during the 6MWT (+34.42 m, 95% CI [28.84–39.99]; p < 0.001). The SRE group showed greater improvement in all secondary outcome measures (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The study findings suggested that the integration of SRE-assisted overground walking training with routine rehabilitation more effectively enhances lower limb motor function in children with SCP compared to routine rehabilitation alone.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue At the Frontiers of Neurorehabilitation: Series II)
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